Types of Astroturfing campaigns of disinformative and polarised content in times of pandemic in Spain

The paper seeks to determine the application of Astroturfing strategies on Twitter in Spain during the COVID-19 pandemic in the spring of 2020. Statistical analysis, network analysis and machine learning techniques are used to evaluate approximately 32,527 messages published from the state of alarm decree in Spain (14 March, 2020) until the end of May of the same year, associated with eight tags that address issues related to misleading content identified by two of the main factchecking projects (Maldito Bulo and Newtral). Data allow us to observe the participation of users (not bots) who play the role of influencers despite having an average profile or a profile that is far from being considered a public personality. The application of Astroturfing can be seen as a communication strategy used to position issues on social networks through the distribution, amplification and flooding of disinformation. The scenario allows us to verify the presence of a digital communication scenario that would favour a framework difficult to detect, from strategies such as the one studied, aimed at breaking the echo chamber and filter bubble of social networks, with the aim of positioning issues at the level of public opinion. © 2023 Scientific Association Icono14. All rights reserved.

Fighting disinformation through source management: a comparison between journalistic models in the context of COVID-19

Introducción: La "pandemia" de la desinformación ha marcado la cobertura periodística del COVID-19, por lo que resulta de interés ver cómo diferentes modelos periodísticos han empleado la gestión de fuentes como criterio de calidad para hacerle frente. Metodología: El presente trabajo analiza las fuentes periodísticas - desde los indicadores de número, identificación y tipologíaempleadas en 420 artículos sobre la cobertura del COVID-19 correspondientes a cuatro modelos profesionales periodísticos: prensa tradicional, medios nativos digitales, prensa popular y plataformas de verificación. Resultados: El análisis refleja una adecuada gestión por parte de la prensa española de las fuentes durante la cobertura de la pandemia, utilizando de forma mayoritaria un número de fuentes superior al estándar;identificándolas correctamente en la práctica totalidad de casos;y empleando una adecuada variedad. Así, pese al claro predominio de las fuentes oficiales, se da también una presencia notable de fuentes expertas de los ámbitos científico y sanitario. Discusión y conclusiones: La calidad en la gestión de fuentes ha contribuido a hacer frente a la desinformación por parte de la prensa española, si bien se detectan importantes diferencias entre modelos profesionales. Las plataformas de verificación son las que presentan unos estándares de calidad más elevados a la hora de gestionar sus fuentes informativas, lo que contribuye a reforzar criterios claves en la lucha contra la desinformación como son verificación, relevancia, credibilidad y transparencia.Alternate :Introduction: The pandemic of misinformation has shaped the journalistic coverage of COVID-19, so it is interesting to see how different journalistic models have used source management as a quality criterion to address it. Methodology: This paper analyses the journalistic sources - from the indicators of number, identification and typology - used in 420 articles on the coverage of COVID-19 corresponding to four journalistic professional models: traditional press, digital native media, popular press and verification platforms. Results: The analysis reflects an adequate management of sources by the Spanish press during the coverage of the pandemic, mostly using a higher than standard number of sources;identifying them correctly in almost all cases;and using an adequate variety. Therefore, despite the clear predominance of official sources, there is also a notable presence of expert sources from the scientific and health fields. Discussion and conclusions: The quality of source management has contributed to fighting disinformation in the Spanish press, although there are important differences between professional models. Verification platforms are those with the highest quality standards when managing their information sources, which helps to reinforce key criteria in the fight against disinformation, such as verification, relevance, credibility and transparency.

TYPOLOGY AND PATTERNS OF HEALTH-AND NUTRITION-RELATED HOAXES SPREAD DURING THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC

This study aims to identify the typology and patterns of hoaxes related to health and nutrition disseminated during the first stage of the COVID-19 pandemic (March-November 2020). To do this, an exploratory quantitative study was carried out with two data types. The first data comes from studying 95 documents (scientific articles) found in the SCOPUS database through Boolean searches with the terms (dis)misinformation, hoax, health, and nutrition. A registration form was used for these documents, indicating the following items: a) topic of the article (health or nutrition);b) the type of wrong message (misinformation or hoax);c) the country in which the study was done;d) the type of participants (general public, young people, the elderly, health professionals, university students);and e) the type of informational channel studied (Twitter, Facebook, YouTube, Instagram, printed newspapers, digital newspapers, web platforms, television, among others). Conversely, 95 ingredients or foods were selected that were disseminated as hoaxes in Spanish, via WhatsApp, during the first month of confinement (March-April, 2020). A form was used to evaluate the content of the hoaxes, identifying: a) the type of ingredient or food (fruit, vegetable, legume, nut, herb, among others);and b) the sources of information the hoaxes cited (health authorities, the general public, medical organisations, among others). Ultimately, the results of both quantitative studies concluded that the international pattern to spread hoaxes was mainly about health in general, and the (dis)misinformation concerning nutrition was a minority and in 91% of cases was related to the intake of fruits and vegetables, claiming they could prevent or cure COVID-19, without any scientific evidence. © 2022 CSIC.

FAKE NEWS CONSUMPTION AMONG INDONESIAN GENERATION Z ON TWITTER DURING PANDEMIC COVID-19

This research aims to analyze how Indonesian Gen Z identifies and responds to fake news on Twitter and what types of sources produce fake news on Twitter. The research findings showed that Indonesian Gen Z identifies fake news through five metrics: Content, Context, Semantics, Structure, and User. The most used metric they used, which marked as the novelty findings of this research, was Context and Structure. Furthermore, Indonesian Gen Z tends to respond to fake news through Passive Engagement more, such as ignoring, cross-checking, passively reading, and showing skepticism, compared to Active Engagement, such as replying, sharing, and reporting. © 2022 Little Lion Scientific.

Social Media as a Gateway to Information: Digital Literacy on Current Issues in Social Media

The digital age has changed humans in accessing information from offline media to online media. The presence of digital media, such as smartphone help people get current issues quickly without limits of time and place. With advances in information technology, internet users not only can receive information but also send information in the form of comments and share information. The current internet media that has become a gateway for information is social media. This paper aims to discuss information dissemination on current issues in social media. The data sources for this paper were social media texts and online questionnaire results. The research question in this paper is what current issues are communicated in social media and how is the cyber communities' digital literacy on current issues in social media. The research findings show that 90.03% of people access information through social media, the frequency of time spent with social media to access information is 81%, and the type of social media used to access information is Facebook (38.4%), WhatsApp (20.2%), YouTube (18.4%), Twitter (8.3%) and Tiktok (6.1%). Furthermore, the current issues that can be accessed by media users are covid-19 vaccination and intolerance. The major problem with social media as a gateway to information is the digital literacy of the cyber communities on the spread of fake news related to the Covid-19 vaccination and intolerance.

Astroturfing as a strategy for manipulating public opinion on Twitter during the pandemic in Spain

This work aims to establish whether astroturfing was used during the Covid-19 pandemic to manipulate Spanish public opinion through Twitter. This study analyzes tweets published in Spanish and geolocated in the Philippines, and its first objective is to determine the existence of an organized network that directs its messages mainly towards Spain. To determine the non-existence of a random network, a preliminary collection of 1,496,596 tweets was carried out. After determining its 14 main clusters, 280 users with a medium-low profile of participation and micro- and nano-influencer traits were randomly selected and followed for 103 days, for a total of 309,947 tweets. Network science, text mining, sentiment and emotion, and bot probability analyses were performed using Gephi and R. Their network structure suggests an ultra-small-world phenomenon, which would determine the existence of a possible organized network that tries not to be easily identifiable. The data analyzed confirm a digital communication scenario in which astroturfing is used as a strategy aimed at manipulating public opinion through non-influencers (cybertroops). These users create and disseminate content with proximity and closeness to different groups of public opinion, mixing topics of general interest with disinformation or polarized content.

Twitter content curation as an antidote to hybrid warfare during Russia's invasion of Ukraine

Concern regarding information disorders has been magnified by the proliferation of social networks. Since its occupation of Crimea in 2014, Russia has been spewing disinformation both inside and outside its borders, giving rise to a hybrid conflict, which since 24 February 2022 has become an invasion. Faced with this flood of malicious information on social networks, fact-checkers assume the role of content curators, relying on contextualization, verification, and literacy improvement to reduce such noise. This work studies the Twitter activity of three Spanish fact-checkers (Newtral, EFE Verifica, and Maldito Bulo), to fight this new epidemic of disinformation. The sample (n = 397) was subjected to content analysis to study the evolution of the verifications and their reaction capacity, the purpose of their activity, the formats in which the content is presented, and their distribution and interaction as revealed by reactions on Twitter. The results reveal a rapid, albeit repetitive, response of the fact-checkers to the invasion, support from them to end the internationalization of hoaxes, a reliance on denials and contextualization rather than literacy improvement, unattractive formats, and a distribution and impact that demonstrate a greater reaction to sensational and emotive content.

Disinformation in Spain one year after COVID-19. Analysis of the Newtral and Maldita verifications

Introducción. Un año después del inicio del estado de alarma en España se ha realizado un estudio para comprobar cuál es la situación de las noticias falsas. Metodología. Se ha realizado análisis de contenido de todas las verificaciones realizadas por las plataformas de fact checking Maldito Bulo y Newtral durante el mes del aniversario (14 de marzo a 14 de abril de 2021). En total, se han analizado 255 fact checks. Resultados. Son las noticias falsas sobre el debate político, al margen de la pandemia, las que más se están difundiendo. Los contenidos relacionados con la crisis sanitaria más difundidos son los vinculados con las vacunas y el proceso de vacunación. Casi una cuarta parte de los bulos tiene como protagonista al Gobierno de España, a gobiernos autonómicos y a otras instituciones, siendo el Ejecutivo español del que más se habla. Por el contrario, la mitad de las informaciones falsas detectadas han sido creadas por personas que no son conocidas socialmente o por personas cuya identidad se desconoce, también por los medios de comunicación y partidos de la oposición. Conclusiones y Discusión. Encontramos que las noticias falsas sobre la COVID-19 suponen un año más tarde poco más de una cuarta parte de todos los bulos existentes, lo que supone un claro descenso en comparación con los primeros meses de pandemia. Las noticias falsas continúan siendo difundidas especialmente por Twitter y WhatsApp.Alternate :Introduction. One year after the beginning of the state of alarm in Spain, a study has been carried out to check the situation of fake news. Methodology. A content analysis of all the checks made by the fact checking platforms Maldito Bulo and Newtral during the month of the anniversary (March 14 to April 14, 2021) has been carried out. In total, 255 fact checks were analyzed. Results. The fake news that are spreading the most are related to the political debate, beyond the pandemic. The most disseminated content related to the health crisis are linked to vaccines and the vaccination process. Almost a quarter of the hoaxes have the Spanish Government, regional governments and other institutions as protagonists, with the Spanish Executive being the most commented. On the other hand, half of the false information detected has been created by people who are not socially known or whose identity is unknown, as well as by the media and opposition parties. Conclusions and Discussion. We found that fake news about COVID-19 account one year later for a little more than a quarter of all existing hoaxes, which is a clear decrease compared to the first months of the pandemic. Fake news continues to be spread especially by Twitter and WhatsApp.

Analysis of Hoaxes about COVID-19 Debunked by Maldita and Colombiacheck: Effects of the Infodemic on the Behavior of Society

Current studies on the effects of disinformation have mainly focused on politics, whereas fake health news are potentially more harmful to consumer welfare than political hoaxes. The most representative example of this approach is the current crisis caused by the coronavirus pandemic. The World Health Organization alerted, in February 2020, of another coronavirus-associated pandemic: the infodemic, which refers to the spread of false information on health with direct consequences for people’s well-being. To study this phenomenon further, this research, which has a clear international projection, aims to identify the media frames that predominate in COVID-19-related hoaxes in Spain (N = 708), as detected by the Maldita. es and Colombiacheck verification platforms. From an inductive perspective—qualitative methodology—five frames were inferred to analyze this infodemic: “impact,” “polarization,” “super-remedies,” “causes,” and “clickbait.” The results show that “impact” is the dominant frame and refers to hoaxes that inspire fear and confusion in the audience. These results are somehow logical;considering the intrinsic characteristics of hoaxes that include the “impact” frame, disinformation induces the user’s urgent need to alarm or alert other individuals. © 2022 Universidad de La Sabana. All rights reserved.

The Behaviour of Health Faculty Students Responding to Hoaxes Related Covid-19 on Social Media

Background: Hoax is still a problem in the era of information disclosure and technological advances currently. News or information containing hoax related to Covid-19 affects the handling effort of the Covid-19 pandemic. This research aimed to describe the behavior of health faculty students in responding to the hoaxes associated with Covid-19 on social media. Method: This research was a descriptive study. The sampling technique used was random sampling. The samples were 384 students who were required to complete the questionnaire. The statistical test used was descriptive statistical analysis. Results: The results obtained in this study were that respondents considered Facebook as the most widely used social media for spreading hoaxes (68%). Respondents thought that cross-checking the accuracy and validity of information is a step that should be performed when receiving hoax news (85%). Respondents stated that they dug up information through official government websites regarding the handling of Covid-19 to check the statement's truth (65%). Some respondents did not cross-check the news or information related to Covid-19 due to the assumption that someone else had done it. Conclusion: Most respondents have cross-checked news or information about Covid-19. Extracting information through official government websites on handling Covid-19 has also been taken to check the accuracy and validity of the statement.

COVID-19 vaccine disinformation on YouTube: analysis of a viewing network

COVID-19 has generated a social crisis that has required the production of vast amounts of information of various types, including medical. In this scenario, hoaxes and fake news about health issues have also increased, encouraging disobedience of lockdown restrictions and opposition to vaccination against the disease. At the same time, because of their structure and functioning, social media networks have facilitated the production and distribution of such false information. YouTube has also been identified as a source of medical information including COVID-19 hoaxes. This research focusses on an analysis of a video viewing network on YouTube to trace the connection between various videos recommended on the platform and determine the content of the videos that compose that network. To achieve this, we carry out a content analysis supported by specialised software to extract and analyse the videos. The results reveal a limited network of videos about COVID-19, strongly related to each other. Its amateur aesthetic stands out, as well as the frequent appearance of certain personalities who, as opinion leaders in a scenario of the delegitimization of traditional institutions, become catalysts for hoaxes and fake news that call for civil disobedience and, sometimes, show links with the extreme right. (English) [ FROM AUTHOR] La COVID-19 ha generado un escenario de crisis social que ha demandado una amplia producción de información, también médica. En este escenario, han proliferado bulos y noticias falsas sobre cuestiones de salud que han alentado a la desobediencia sobre las medidas de confinamiento o la oposición a la vacunación contra la enfermedad. Paralelamente, las redes sociales, por su estructura y funcionamiento, han facilitado la producción y distribución de informaciones falsas. YouTube, además, ha sido identificada como una fuente de información médica que contiene también engaños sobre la COVID-19. Esta investigación se centra en el análisis de una red de visionado de vídeos en YouTube, con el objetivo de trazar la conexión entre diversos vídeos recomendados en la plataforma y observar los contenidos de los vídeos que forman parte de dicha red. Para ello, llevamos a cabo un análisis de contenido apoyado en software especializado para la extracción y análisis de los vídeos. Los resultados muestran una red limitada de vídeos sobre la COVID-19, fuertemente relacionados entre ellos. Destaca su estética amateur, así como la aparición frecuente de ciertos sujetos que, como líderes de opinión en un escenario de deslegitimación de las instituciones tradicionales, se convierten en catalizadores de bulos y noticias falsas que llaman a la desobediencia civil y, en ocasiones, muestran vínculos con la extrema derecha. (Spanish) [ FROM AUTHOR] Copyright of Communication & Society is the property of Servicio de Publicaciones de la Universidad de Navarra, S.A. and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full . (Copyright applies to all s.)

Análisis de los bulos sobre covid-19 desmentidos por Maldita y Colombiacheck: efectos de la infodemia sobre el comportamiento de la sociedad *

The World Health Organization alerted, in February 2020, of another coronavirus-associated pandemic: the infodemic, which refers to the spread of false information on health with direct consequences for people's well-being. To study this phenomenon further, this research, which has a clear international projection, aims to identify the media frames that predominate in COVID-19-related hoaxes in Spain (N = 708), as detected by the Maldita. es and Colombiacheck verification platforms. The results show that "impact" is the dominant frame and refers to hoaxes that inspire fear and confusion in the audience. Sin embargo, tanto Gramsci como Bauman coinciden en que la noción de interregnum adquiere un nuevo significado, lo cual aplica para la actualidad: el interregnum se asocia a situaciones extraordinarias como la crisis del coronavirus, en donde el marco legal vigente, que determina el orden social, pierde fuerza y se desvanece, mientras van apareciendo tímidamente nuevos marcos que, aunque todavía no han reemplazado a los antiguos, dejan ver que es necesario renovar y cambiar lo viejo, que se ha vuelto obsoleto e ineficaz.

A Survey on the Use of Graph Convolutional Networks for Combating Fake News

The combat against fake news and disinformation is an ongoing, multi-faceted task for researchers in social media and social networks domains, which comprises not only the detection of false facts in published content but also the detection of accountability mechanisms that keep a record of the trustfulness of sources that generate news and, lately, of the networks that deliberately distribute fake information. In the direction of detecting and handling organized disinformation networks, major social media and social networking sites are currently developing strategies and mechanisms to block such attempts. The role of machine learning techniques, especially neural networks, is crucial in this task. The current work focuses on the popular and promising graph representation techniques and performs a survey of the works that employ Graph Convolutional Networks (GCNs) to the task of detecting fake news, fake accounts and rumors that spread in social networks. It also highlights the available benchmark datasets employed in current research for validating the performance of the proposed methods. This work is a comprehensive survey of the use of GCNs in the combat against fake news and aims to be an ideal starting point for future researchers in the field.

TOXICITY COUPLED WITH TOXICITY: I Forgot Why I Was Crying

[...]one of my friends, J. Ross, whose wife works as a medical professional, posted on Facebook that he begged her to just let him die. Testing sites and preventive practices were established first in more affluent communities as price-gouging practices resurfaced in financially distressed communities. [...]he said, "What are you doing?" I said, "I have a parent in crisis mode. For the first time in history, educators (parents/guardians/relatives/siblings) will not be vetted, require a background check, child abuse clearance, or an in-service on sexual harassment/abuse or corporal punishment.

Restricted diets: analysis of the press discourse on nutrition in times of Covid-19

The essential elements of the Spanish press’s discourse on nutrition guidelines during the Covid-19 health crisis are identified. To do this, the evolution of media representation is examined, with a semantic analysis of the news appearing in the national media in Spanish regarding nutrition and Covid-19. The analyzed period is from 31 January 2020 to 31 January 2021. The content search carried out using the Factiva database identified 117 records, which were analysed using T-LAB software. The results reveal that the press warned of hoaxes regarding nutrition during the study period. Four semantic groups are identified, informing about the most appropriate eating patterns according to the different circumstances during the pandemic. The results show that the press plays a role as an educator of Spanish society on nutrition-related topics. © 2021, El Profesional de la Informacion. All rights reserved.

Disinformation, social media, bots, and astroturfing: the fourth wave of digital democracy

This article reflects on the conceptualization and the salient features of the ecology of e-democracy. The authors identify four distinct waves marked by technological innovations and studied under the control–participation dichotomy. In the first wave, during the 1990s, political actors begin to establish their online presence but without any other notable changes in communication. The second wave takes place from 2004 to 2008 and features the consolidation of social networks and the increasing commodification of audience engagement. The third wave begins to take shape during Obama’s 2008 election campaign, which featured micro-segmentation and the use of big data. The fourth wave, starting in 2016 with the Brexit campaign and the Cambridge Analytica scandal, has been defined by the front and center use of Artificial Intelligence. Some recent phenomena that challenge or buttress the make-up of critical public opinion are the following: a) digital platforms as political actors;b) the marked use of Artificial Intelligence and big data;c) the use of falsehoods as a political strategy, as well as other fake news and deep fake phenomena;d) the combination of hyperlo-cal and supranational issues;e) technological determinism;f) the search for audience engagement and co-production processes;and g) trends that threaten democracy, to wit, the polarization of opinions, astroturfing, echo chambers and bubble filters. Finally, the authors identify several challenges in research, pedagogy and politics that could strengthen democratic values, and conclude that democracy needs to be reimagined both under new research and political action frameworks, as well as through the creation of a social imaginary on democracy. © 2021, El Profesional de la Informacion. All rights reserved.

How disinformation kills: philosophical challenges in the post-Covid society.

The paper argues that the large extent of disinformation has increased the number of deaths from coronavirus due to the proliferation of hoaxes spread via digital tools and media. It is noted that this problem could worsen in the post-COVID society and as such should be understood as having significant political import. Moreover, the phenomenon of disinformation has raised ethical questions around how to actively prevent deaths indirectly caused by hoaxes, as well as epistemological questions around maintaining criteria of truthfulness.

Exploratory study of the hoaxes spread via WhatsApp in Spain to prevent and/or cure COVID-19.

OBJECTIVE: To review the hoaxes' characteristics spread through WhatsApp in Spain during COVID-19 lockdown and identify what kind of substances were promoted for consumption or application. METHOD: A phone number was activated to receive hoaxes via WhatsApp. A total of 2353 messages were collected, and among those 584 different hoaxes were identified and validated, between March 18 and April 18, 2020. From these 584 hoaxes, a sub-sample of 126 was selected, exclusively related to the object of study, and a content analysis table with fourteen registration fields was applied. Besides, the averages and medians of the quantitative fields were extracted. RESULTS: Most of the messages received were texts (39%) and videos (30%). In the majority, the acting subject was presented as medical personnel (36.5%) or as an anonymous person (30.9%). The videos lasted between 2' 40" and 18' 18", while the audios ranged between 1' 35" and 7' 48". Regarding the gender of the informant, there was a significant difference, with 45.2% being male, and 13.5%, female and 41.3% non-identifiable. CONCLUSIONS: One out of five false health claims received was about prevention or cure of the coronavirus, based on the principle of medical authority, and basically promoting the use and consumption of substances of natural origin.